The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain responsible for executive functioning, including decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation (Arnsten, 2011). This means that it plays a critical role in helping children make good decisions, control their impulses, and manage their emotions. When the prefrontal cortex is not fully developed, children may struggle with these skills and exhibit challenging behaviors.

The prefrontal cortex is one of the last brain regions to fully develop, with development continuing into early adulthood (Gogtay et al., 2004). While many brain regions reach maturity by early adolescence, the prefrontal cortex is one of the last regions to fully develop. This means that children and adolescents may struggle with executive functioning skills even into their late teens and early twenties.

During childhood and adolescence, the prefrontal cortex undergoes significant structural and functional changes (Giedd et al., 1999). As children grow and develop, their prefrontal cortex is changing and developing as well. This means that there is a lot of potential for growth and improvement in executive functioning skills during this time.

Brain development in the prefrontal cortex is influenced by genetic and environmental factors, including stress and trauma (McLaughlin & Sheridan, 2016). While genetics play a role in prefrontal cortex development, environmental factors such as stress and trauma can also have a significant impact. Children who experience chronic stress or trauma may have delays in prefrontal cortex development, which can lead to long-term emotional and behavioral difficulties.

Disruptions in prefrontal cortex development can lead to difficulties with emotional regulation, impulse control, and decision-making (Arnsten, 2011). When the prefrontal cortex is not fully developed or is disrupted by stress or trauma, children may struggle with managing their emotions, controlling their impulses, and making good decisions.

Children who experience early life stress and trauma may have delays in prefrontal cortex development, which can lead to long-term emotional and behavioral difficulties (McLaughlin & Sheridan, 2016). Stress and trauma can have a profound impact on prefrontal cortex development, potentially leading to difficulties with executive functioning skills that persist into adulthood.

Positive parenting practices, such as warmth, responsiveness, and consistent discipline, have been associated with better prefrontal cortex development in children (Bernier et al., 2010). Parenting practices can also play a role in prefrontal cortex development. Positive parenting practices, such as showing warmth and responsiveness to children and providing consistent discipline, have been associated with better executive functioning skills in children.

Sleep is important for prefrontal cortex development, with chronic sleep deprivation leading to disruptions in executive functioning (Jarrin et al., 2014). Sleep is critical for brain development, including the prefrontal cortex. Chronic sleep deprivation can lead to disruptions in executive functioning skills, potentially causing children to struggle with managing their emotions, controlling their impulses, and making good decisions.

Physical activity has also been linked to better prefrontal cortex development, with exercise promoting cognitive function and emotional regulation (Hillman et al., 2008). Physical activity is another important factor in prefrontal cortex development. Exercise has been shown to promote cognitive function and emotional regulation, potentially helping children develop better executive functioning skills.

Finally, therapy and other interventions can be helpful in promoting prefrontal cortex development and improving emotional regulation and behavioral functioning in children and adolescents (Riggs et al., 2017). For children who are struggling with executive functioning

References:

Arnsten, A. F. (2011). Development of the prefrontal cortex: Evolution, neurobiology, and behavior. In S. Nelson & M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 417-433). MIT Press.

Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive functioning. Child Development, 81(1), 326-339.

Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., … & Rapoport, J. L. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 861-863.

Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., … & Thompson, P. M. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101(21), 8174-8179.

Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(1), 58-65.

Jarrin, D. C., McGrath, J. J., Giovanniello, S., & Poirier, P. (2014). Contribution of sleep to the regulation of the emotion and behavior in children and adolescents. In S. R.